Chapter Nine: The Patterns of Inheritance

1. What causes most human genetic disorders?

  A: Most human genetic disorders are recessive.  They range in severity from relatively mild, such as albinism (lack of pigmentation), to life-threatening, such as cystic fibrosis.  Most people who have recessive disorders are born to normal parents who are both heterozygotes.  That is, they are carriers of the recessive allele for the disorder but are phenotypically normal.

2. What are two dominant disorders?

   A: One serious dominant disorder is achondroplasia, a form of dwarfism.  In people with this disorder, the head and torso of the body develop normally, but the arms and legs are short.  Another is Huntington's Disease, a degenerative disorder of the nervous system that usually does not appear until 35 to 45 years of age.

3. What is the chromosome theory of inheritance?

   A: The chromosome theory of inheritance states that genes occupy specific loci on chromosomes and it is the chromosomes that undergo segregation and independent assortment during meiosis.  Thus, it is the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization that accounts for inheritance patterns.


Five Main Facts From The Reading:

1. The rule of addition is the probability that an event can occur in two or more alternative ways is the sum of the separate probabilities of the different ways. 
2. An organism's appearance does not always reveal its genetic composition.  An organism's physical traits are called its physical traits.  It's genetic makeup is its genotype.
3. The law of independent assortment states that each pair of alleles segregates independently of other pairs of alleles during gamete formation.
4. Pleiotropy is the property that most genes influence multiple characters.
5. Polygenic inheritance are the additive effects of two or more genes on a single phenotypic character.

this is a punnet square, where the genes of the parents are combined to determine the traits of the potential offspring.

Mendelian Genetics Video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oVl8OH_7QSc

10 Key Terms:

Hybrids- the offspring of two different varieties.
P Generation- the true-breeding parental plants.
F1 Generation- P generation's hybrid offspring.
F2 Generation- offspring when F1 plants self-fertilize or fertilize each other.
Alleles- the alternative versions of a gene.
Homozygous- when an organism has two identical alleles for a gene, it is homozygous for that gene.
Heterozygous- when an organism has two different alleles for a gene, it is heterozygous for that gene.
Dominant allele- allele that determines the organism's appearance.
Recessive allele- allele that has no noticeable affect on the organism's appearance.
Law of Segregation-  A sperm or egg carries only one allele for each inherited character because allele pairs separate from each other during the production of gametes.

Summary: This chapter deals with genetics and the patterns of inheritance that are portrayed when an offspring is produced from two parents. It also deals with sex-linked genes, Mendelian genetics, and the chromosomal basis of inheritance. 

Chapter Eight: The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance

Questions:

1. Why is binary fission classified as asexual reproduction?

  A: Because the genetically identical offspring inherit their DNA from a single parent.

2. Contrast cytokinesis in animals with cytokinesis in plants?

  A: In animals, cytokinesis involves a cleavage furrow in which contracting microfilaments pinch the cell in two. In plants, it involves formation of a cell plate, a fusion of vesicles that forms new membrane and walls between the cells.

3.  What is metastasis?

  A: Metastasis is the spread of cancer cells via the circulatory system from their original site of formation to sites in the body.


Five Main Facts From The Reading:

1. Cells arise only from preexisting cells.
2. Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission.
3. Chromosomes of eukaryotes duplicate with each cell division.
4. Anchorage, cell density, and chemical growth factors affect cell division.
5. Cancer is caused by non-regulation growth in the cells.

This image shows the cell in the final stage of reproduction: cytokinesis, or seperation.





What is Leukemia? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JNh1u7P7Ql8


Ten Key Terms:

Asexual Reproduction - the creation of genetically identical offspring by a single parent without the use of sperm or egg.
Chromosomes - the structures that contain most of the organism's DNA.
Sexual Reproduction - offspring that generally resemble their parents more closely than they resemble unrelated individuals of the same species, produced by two parents with the use of sperm and egg.
Chromatin - chromosomes existing as a diffuse mass of long, thing fibers.
Sister Chromatids - identical copies of the DNA molecule.
Centromere - a small "ball" that joins the two chromatids together.
Cell Cycle - an ordered sequence of events that extends from the time a cell is first formed until it's own division into two cells.
Mitotic spindle - a football shaped structure of microtubules that guides the seperation of the two sets of daughter chromosomes.
Centrosomes - clouds of cytoplasmic material that in animal cells contain centrioles.
Anchorage Dependence - most animal cells exhibit this, they must be in contact with a solid surface to divide.


This chapter took us through two cell cycles, Mitosis and Meiosis.. both related to cell division. It explored the steps that lead to cell division: Interphase, Prophase, (Prometaphase) Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase and Cytokinesis. It explained the differences between Meiosis and Mitosis and well as the differences of cell division in plant and animal cells.

Chapter Seven: Using LIght to Make Food

Questions:

1. How do the reactant molecules of photosynthesis reach the chloroplasts in leaves?

  A: CO2 enters leaves through stromata, and H2O enters the roots and is carried to leaves through veins.

2. What do chloroplasts need to produce sugar from carbon dioxide in the dark?

  A: ATP and NADPH.

3. What is the advantage of the light reactions producing NADPH and ATP on the stroma side of the thylakoid membrane?

  A: The Calvin Cycle, which consumes the NADPH and ATP, occurs in the stromata.


Five Main Facts From The Reading:

1. Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts in plant cells.
2. Photosynthesis is a redox process, as is cellular respiration.
3. The two stages of photosynthesis are linked by ATP and NADPH.
4. Visible radiation drives the light reactions.
5. Photosynthesis moderates global warming.

A rudimentary overview of photosynthesis in a sunflower (I hate sunflowers.)

Photosynthesis Light Reactions: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hj_WKgnL6MI

Ten Key Terms:

Autotroph - make their own foods and thus sutain themselves without consuming organic molecules derived from any other organisms.

Producers - produce food supply to the biosphere. 

Mesophyll - the green tissue in the interior of the leaf.

Stomata - tiny pores in the leaf through which carbon dioxide enters and oxygen exits.

Stroma - thick fluid in the inner compartment of the chloroplast. 

Thylakoids - a system of interconnected membranous sacs.

Electromagnetic Spectrum - the full range of electromagnetic wavelengths from the very short gamma rays to the very long radio waves.

Wavelength - the distance between the crests of two adjacent waves. 

Photon - a fixed quantity of light energy.

Photosystem - a number of light harvesting complexes surrounding a reaction center complex.

This chapter went over Cellular Respiration's "sister," photosynthesis. Photosynthesis in the plant cells ability to take in water, light, NADP+, ADP,  and phosphorous and convent it into sugar molecules to be stored as a source of food. It took us through Light Reactions II and I and into the Calvin cycle, showing us the reactants and products of all three. 

It also discussed the benefits of photosynthetic organisms to the biosphere, and how it is even being studied as a way to slowly repair the Ozone.

Chapter Six: How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy

Questions:

1. How is breathing related to your cellular respiration?

  A: In breathing, CO2 and O2 are exchanged between your lungs and the air. In cellular respiration, cells use O2 to break down fuel, releasing CO2 as a waste product.

2.  What Cehmical Characteristic of the element oxygen accounts for its function in cellular respiration?

   A: Oxygen is very electronegative, meaning that it is very powerful in pulling electrons from other elements.

3.  What is eh total number of NADH molecules generated during? the complete breakdown of one glucose molecule to six carbon dioxide molecules?

   A: 10 NADH. Two from glycolysis. Two from the grooming of pyruvate. Six from the citric acid cycle.


Five Main Facts From The Reading:

1. Cells tap energy from electrons "falling" from organic fuels to oxygen.
2. The human body uses energy from ATP for all its activities.
3. Glycolysis harvest chemical energy by oxidizing glucose to pyruvate.
4. Most ATP production occurs by oxidative phosphorylation.
5. Fermentation enables cells to produce ATP without oxygen.

                                                   ^Cellular respiration and its cycles. ^

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vlZZUtpyCgQ Cellular Respiration Rap.



Ten Key Terms:

Kilocalories - the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one ilogram of water by 1 degree C.
Redox Reaction - the movement of electrons from one molecule to another.
Oxidation - the loss of electrons from one substance in a redox reaction.
Reduction - the addition of electrons to another substance.
Dehydrogenase - enzyme in the process of oxidizing gluclose.
Glycolysis - step one in cellular respiration.
The citric acid (krebs) cycle - step two in cellular respiration.
Oxidative Phosphorylation - the final step in cellular respiration.
ATP Synthase - the enzyme that generates most of the ATP in cellular respiration.
Pyruvate - a three carbon sugar from glucose that enters the citric acid cycle.



This chapter was an in dept look at cellular respiration, the cycle that keeps the cells in our body function. It walked us through the three levels, Glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation while showing us how each step works and what the reactants and products where.

Chapter Five: The Working Cell

Questions:

1. What is passive transport?

  A: A big part of passive transport is diffusion, the tendency for particles of any kind to spread out evenly in an available space.  The molecules move from wehre they are more concentrated to regions where they are less concentrated.  Because a cell does not perform work when molecules diffuse across its membrane (does not exert energy) this process is called passive transport.


2. What is it called when water diffuses?

  A: Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a membrane.  For example, an experiment we performed involved a dialysis bag filled with a glucose/starch solution placed into a beaker of water.  Because the water concentration in the bag (semi-permeable membrane) was low, the water molecules slowly began to seep into the bag.  This was an example of osmosis.

3. What in the world is exocytosis?

  A: Exocytosis is used to export bulky materials such as proteins or polysaccharides.  A transport vesicle filled with macromolecules buds from the golgi apparatus and moves to the plasma membrane.  It then fuses with the membrane and the vesicle contents spill out of the cell while the vesicle becomes one with the membrane, keeping out unwanted particles.  Crying is an example of exocytosis.  (oooooh, okay.)


Five Main Facts From The Reading:

1. Membranes are a fluid mosaic of phospholipids and proteins.
2. Passive transport is diffusion across a membrane with no energy investment.
3. Water balance between cells and their surroundings is crucial to organisms.
4. Cells transform energy as they perform work.
5. Enzymes speed up the cell's chemical reactions by lowering energy barriers.

Ten Key Terms:

Diffusion- the tendency for particles of any kind to spread out evenly in an available space.
Aquaporins- a transport protein.
Endocytosis- a transport process that is the opposite of exocytosis
Phagocytosis- a cell engulfs a particle by wrapping extensions called pseudopodia around it and packaging it within a membrane sac large enough to be called a vacuole.
Pinocytosis- the cell "gulps" droplets of fluid into tiny vesicles.
Energy- the capacity to perform work.
Kinetic energy- the energy of motion.
Heat- (thermal energy) a form of kinetic energy associated with the random movement of atoms or molecules.
Potential energy- stored energy that an object possesses as a result of its location or structure.
Exergonic reaction- a chemical reaction that releases energy.


This chapter was mostly about the different ways cells work to gain energy and the way the energy is used.  It explored in detail different ways that cells can take in outside particles to provide themselves with energy, such as endocytosis, phagocytosis, pinocytosis, ect.
It also talked about the different kinds of energy, kinetic (which is the energy of motion,) and potential (which is stored energy that an object possesses as a result of its location.)
Chapter five is about "The Working Cell."

Chapter Four: A Tour of the Cell

Questions:

1. What is the difference between a prokaryotic and a eukaryotic cell?

  A:  Prokaryotic: has no nucleus.  Eukaryotic: True Nucleus.  The difference between these cells is that a eukaryotic cells, such as the ones found in plants and animals, has a nucleus where it stores the genetic material.  The prokaryotic cells, such as bacterium, has no nucleus and uses other means to store genetic information.

2.  What are the parts of a prokaryotic cell?

  A:  Plasma membrane: regulates what comes in and out of the cell.
Cytoplasm: support.
DNA: genetic code.
Ribosomes: make protein.
Cytoskeleton: structure.
Nucleus: contains DNA.
ER: biosynthetic factory.
Golgi apparatus: packaging.
Lysosomes: clean up.
Vacuoles/vesicle: transport.
Peroxisomes: clean up.
Mitochondria: produce energy.

3.  What is the ER?

  A:  The Endoplasmic Reticulum is a synthesis of membrane lipids and proteins, secretory proteins and hydrolytic enzymes: formation of transport vesicles.  The smooth ER also helps with lipid synthesis, detoxification in liver cells, and calcium ion storage.


Five Main Facts From The Reading:

1. Eukaryotic cells are partitioned into functional compartments.
2. The structure of membranes correlates with their functions.
3. The nucleus is the cell's genetic control center.
4. Ribosomes make proteins for use in the cell and exportation.
5. Mitochondria harvest chemical energy from food.

This diagram shows the different parts of a eukaryotic animal cell.

Ten Key Terms:

Nucleus- contains most of the cell's DNA and controls the cell's activities by directing protein synthesis.

Ribosome- cellular components that carry out protein synthesis.

Vesicle- sacs made of membrane.

Golgi apparatus- serves as a molecular warehouse and finishing factory, receives and modifies products manufactured by the ER.

Lysosome- digestive exzymes enclosed in a membranous sac.

Vacuoles- membranous sacs that have a variety of functions.

Mitochondria- organelles that carry out cellular respiration in nearly all eukaryotic cells, converting the chemical energy of foods such as suars to the chemical energy of a molecule called ATP.

Chloroplasts- the photosynthesizing organelles of all photosynthetic eukaryotes. 

Stroma- a thick fluid which contains the chloroplast DNA and ribosomes as well al many enzymes.

Organelles- little organs located in the cytoplasm of cells.

Through the Virtual Cell Video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YM2X1c4K1x0

  This chapter, as the title suggests, is about exploring the cell.  It takes an in depth look at the eukaryotic cell, it's organelles and their functions.  It shows the differences between eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells, as well as plant and animal cells.  It also shows the many different ways a cell is vital to life, and how hard each individual cell must work to maintain its structure and function. 

Chapter Three:The Molecules of Cells

Questions:

1.  Why are people lactose intolerant?

  A:  This is the wrong question.  The question should, in fact, be why are people lactose TOLERANT?  It is shown through research and surveys that most of the worlds population cannot easily digest dairy based products.  The ones that can are so able because of a mutation in an enzyme called "lactase," this enzyme helps to break down and easily digest dairy products.  Most people of Asian, African, and Native American descent do not have this handy mutation.  Nearly all lactose tolerant people are from european descent (a place that long depended on cattle and dairy products for survival.)

2.  What determines a proteins function?

  A:  The determining factor of a proteins function is it's molecular build.  20 amino acids can be combined in millions of different ways, providing the code for the function that certain protein is to perform.

3.  Is high-fructose corn syrup to blame for obesity?

  A: Maybe.  There are still ongoing studies trying to prove or disprove this theory, but the evidence is circumstantial.


Five Main Facts From The Reading:

1.  Proteins are essential to the structures and functions of life.
2.  A protein's specific shape determines its function.
3.  Mutations can harm or help us. (exp. sickle-cell, lactose tolerance.)
4.  A protein has four levels of structure.
5.  Fats are necessary to store energy.

This diagram shows the differences between estrogen (the female hormone,) and testosterone (the male hormone.  They only differ in chemical groups, but are otherwise very similar.

Ten Key Terms:

Isomers - compounds with the same formula but different structures.

Hydrophilic - water loving.

Hydrophobic - water fearing.

Hydroxyl Group - a hydrogen atom bonded to an oxygen atom, which is bonded to the carbon skeleton.

Carbonyl Group - a carbon atom is linked to an oxygen atom.

Carboxyl Group - a carbon double-bonded to an oxygen and also bonded to a hydroxyl gorup.

Amino Group - a nitrogen bonded to two hydrogen atoms and the carbon skeleton.

Phosphate Group - a phosphorous atom bonded to four oxygen atoms.

Methyl Group - a carbon bonded to three hydrogens.

Monosaccharides - the carbohydrate monomer (single-unit sugars.)

Sickle-cell Anemia Video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8RYLu2j0Qy0

This chapter all about the molecules of cells and proteins.  It explained how and why the arrangement of around 20 amino acids can make thousands of different actions and reactions possible.  It showed the basic structures of proteins, which are composed of four layers.  It also explained how some molecules instinctively know to put the hydrophilic portions of itself on the outside, while hiding the hydrophobic particles within the structure, shielding it from any water that it could come in contact with.  This chapter was all about how the structure of molecules makes life possible.